Martin Luther\u2019s appearance in 1517 caused great upheaval throughout the Empire. It did not yet mean a break with the Catholic Church; nevertheless, it could not pass without a reaction, both from the ecclesiastical hierarchy and from the emperor himself (from 1519 \u2013 Charles V). By \u201cdiagnosing\u201d the state of the Church and the role of the pope, Luther responded to the expectations of a significant part of society, and his teachings quickly began to gain an increasing number of followers. \n \nThe matter was to be decided and finally settled at the Imperial Diet in Worms (1521), where, with a surgical cut \u2013 by declaring Luther and his followers outlaws \u2013 the authorities hoped to put an end to the unrest. It was believed that the method applied a hundred years earlier at the Council of Constance could be repeated, when Jan Hus was invited, declared a heretic, and burned at the stake (1415). \n \nThings turned out differently, however. The support of the Saxon elector, Frederick the Wise, for Luther became the beginning of the Reformation and of a great religious-political rupture throughout the Empire and, in the longer term, also in Europe. Gradually, over the next several years, successive German states adopted the new religion, breaking centuries-old ties with Rome. In broad outline, this rupture divided the Empire into northern Protestant states and southern Catholic ones.<\/p>\n\n
Among the territories that ultimately sided with the reform of the Church was also the Duchy of Pomerania. At the time of the \u201cDiet of Worms,\u201d the united Duchy was ruled by Bogislaw X who, although he followed the new religious currents with interest, did not decide to break with the papacy until the end of his reign.<\/p>
Nevertheless, phenomena characteristic of the whole of Germany and even much of Europe were increasingly emerging: dissatisfaction with the privileged position of the clergy, the enrichment of this group at the expense of the more \u201cdisadvantaged,\u201d mainly burghers and peasants, and the pursuit by the bishops of Kamie\u0144 of their own political goals, sometimes contrary to the interests of the state.<\/p>
The privileged status of the bishops aroused resistance among the lower clergy and the Pomeranian estates, and the strong position of the ruler in the united land could encourage the growing tendency to subject the Church to secular authority. Under Bogislaw X, however, this did not come to pass.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
A place that became a strong center of new reformist currents, influencing the whole of Pomerania, was the Premonstratensian (Norbertine) monastery in Bia\u0142oboki near Trzebiat\u00f3w. One of Martin Luther\u2019s closest collaborators, Dr. Johannes Bugenhagen, known as Doctor Pomeranus, was active here. In Pomeranian tradition, he came to be regarded\u2014alongside St. Otto\u2014as the second apostle of Pomerania.<\/p>
It was largely through his initiative that, in December 1534, a regional assembly was held in Trzebiat\u00f3w, at which the dukes received communion under both kinds.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
Before this happened, however, unrest broke out across Pomerania, sometimes taking the form of riots and anti-church demonstrations. Already in 1521, in Trzebiat\u00f3w itself, the activity of the preacher Jan Kureke, associated with Bia\u0142oboki, led to intense social disturbances, which Kureke himself paid for with a short imprisonment.<\/p>
In the same year, activities inspired by Luther\u2019s new teachings were carried out in Pyrzyce (by Jan Knipstro) and in S\u0142upsk (by Christian Ketelhut), where in time there were very turbulent demonstrations by the townspeople directed against the Church. Kureke and Ketelhut soon appeared in Stralsund, where their work likewise caused considerable unrest. In S\u0142upsk and Stralsund, there were even assaults on churches and acts of plundering.<\/p>
Finally, in the year of Duke Bogislaw X\u2019s death (1523), Paul von Rode, sent by Martin Luther, arrived in Szczecin. Throughout the 1520s, the reach of the new teachings extended to more and more towns, so that by the beginning of the next decade the ground was essentially prepared for a change of confession and for carrying out the reform of the Church in the Lutheran spirit.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
ChatGPT powiedzia\u0142: \n \nTaking a stand \u201cfor\u201d or \u201cagainst\u201d the new religious currents generally followed a similar pattern everywhere. The supporters of Luther\u2019s teachings were primarily the middle burghers (led by the craftsmen) as well as the urban poor; opposed to them were the wealthy patriciate and the nobility. Among the clergy, the division resembled that of the laity: the lower and middle clergy responded most positively to the religious innovations.<\/p>\n\n
It is also necessary to mention separately the Pomeranian dukes and the bishop of Kamie\u0144, as those who, on the one hand, bore the responsibility for maintaining order, and on the other, held the final decision regarding the future course of action.<\/p>\n\n
As noted above, the beginnings of Luther\u2019s activity coincided with the reign of Duke Bogislaw X. He was genuinely interested in what was happening in Wittenberg. There he even listened to a sermon by Martin Luther, in which he perceived no threat to his own faith, and he also met Paul von Rode in person. \n \nNevertheless, as a loyal subject of the emperor, he decided to proclaim the Edict of Worms (1521) in his realm, which placed Luther himself and all his followers outside the law. It seems that the duke\u2019s overriding concern in this action was to ensure order and peace in the state. In this, he acted hand in hand with the bishop of Kamie\u0144. An important aspect of such a stance was also the desire to maintain positive relations with neighboring Brandenburg, guaranteed by the Catholic emperor.<\/p>\n\n
Among the sons of Bogislaw, the matter was no longer so clear-cut. The elder, George I, was an orthodox Catholic, for whom abandoning Rome was out of the question. However, George died in 1531, and the situation changed. His younger brother, Barnim IX, who co-ruled with him, openly sympathized with Luther\u2019s teachings, yet together with his brother he had previously decided to restrain the spread of the new currents in the Duchy. \n \nIf either ruler engaged in stronger actions against the Lutherans, it was only out of the need to restore order (as after the riots in Stralsund, S\u0142upsk, and Szczecin in 1524 and 1525). The growing social unrest compelled the dukes to issue letters of safe conduct for the Pomeranian clergy, intended to protect them from the looting of liturgical equipment and other valuable items, as well as from the destruction of places of worship such as churches, paintings, or statues of saints. To safeguard the more precious objects, they were gathered in ducal castles or in places specially prepared by the town councils.<\/p>\n\n
When Duke George died in May 1531, the Duchy was divided into the Szczecin and Wolgast parts. Barnim remained in Szczecin, while George\u2019s son, Philip I, settled in Wolgast. The agreement signed between the Griffins at the time of the division of power did not provide for any change in religious relations. It should be noted, however, that Philip was at that time a moderate supporter of the new faith.<\/p>\n\n
The restrictions that hindered the development of Lutheranism in Pomerania were of both an internal nature\u2014as already mentioned\u2014and an international one. Tense relations with the southern neighbor (Brandenburg) and the still unresolved issue of Pomerania\u2019s feudal dependence on the margraves forced careful positioning on either side of the conflict. Elector Joachim I remained a Catholic until his death (1535) and was among the leaders of the Catholic faction within the Empire. \n \nThis was to change radically during the reign of his sons, Joachim II and John of K\u00fcstrin, who in 1537 also converted to Protestantism. In the longer term (the 1570s), this shift made it possible to normalize relations between the neighboring states.<\/p>\n\n
An important role in the struggle against the emerging Pomeranian Reformation was played by the bishop of Kamie\u0144, Erasmus von Manteuffel. He long resisted decisions to introduce Lutheranism and, being a supporter of a hardline policy, even fought the adherents of the new faith with armed force (the action against the Lutherans in Dobra Nowogardzka in 1530). \n \nTwice he convened diocesan synods in Ko\u0142obrzeg (1525, 1527) with the aim of restoring the situation in the spirit of a return to Catholicism, but they did not bring the expected results. Over time, his stance became less clearly hostile, at times even wavering, yet to the very end he never embraced the new faith.<\/p>\n\n
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The turning point for the adoption of the new faith\u2014Lutheranism\u2014was the assembly in Trzebiat\u00f3w, at which both dukes (Barnim and Philip) received communion in both kinds (December 13, 1534). It must be understood, however, that such an important decision could not have been based on improvisation, and the break with the Catholic Church could not have been determined by chance or by the need of the moment.<\/p>
The December meeting was preceded by an agreement signed in August of that year, in which the initial arrangements were made regarding the introduction of the new confession in both parts of the Duchy. The next step was a consultation with Johannes Bugenhagen, held at the beginning of December, a week before the assembly was convened. These meetings outlined, in general terms, the manner and character of the proceedings, which took into account the possible emergence of a pro-Catholic opposition.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
As expected, the dukes\u2019 December decision did not meet with universal acceptance among their subjects. Although it responded to the demands of the majority of society, it was opposed by Bishop Manteuffel (though his stance was not as unequivocally negative as might be assumed given his office), as well as by the higher clergy and\u2014partly\u2014by the towns and nobility. \n \nNevertheless, the decision was made, and from that point onward, December 13, 1534, is considered the beginning of Protestantism (Lutheranism) in Pomerania.<\/p>\n\n
In developing the project for the new organization of the Church, two positions clashed\u2014overlapping in some respects, yet differing in their approach to resolving the existing (and anticipated) problems. The main issue concerned the role and status of the bishops of Kamie\u0144. The \u201cProtestant\u201d clergy advocated leaving them with their existing rights, privileges, and freedoms, whereas the ducal councillors proposed sharply limiting their role and subordinating them to ducal authority, while simultaneously depriving them of all secular power.<\/p>
This would reduce the bishop\u2019s role solely to spiritual ministry\u2014a true revolution in church relations, not only in Pomerania. In the end, it was this second option that prevailed, which, unsurprisingly, Erasmus Manteuffel refused to accept.<\/p>
Opponents of introducing the Reformation voiced a number of concerns, the most important of which was the fear of falling into imperial disfavor. It should be remembered that the Edict of Worms, though in practice only on paper, was still formally in force, and any alignment with Luther\u2019s teaching could, at least theoretically, result in reprisals from Emperor Charles V.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
Regardless of all doubts, the wavering stance of the bishop of Kamie\u0144 (who asked for time to reflect and thus did not unequivocally reject the new faith), and the reluctance of the wealthier part of society, the Trzebiat\u00f3w assembly sealed the introduction of the Lutheran religion in the Duchy of Pomerania. \n \nThe change in religious relations necessarily required a new organization of the Church. This was established by the Church Ordinance, drafted and published in print by Johannes Bugenhagen in the spring of 1535. It remained in force for the following decades; a second ordinance was published exactly thirty years later, when it could be updated based on experience and the altered religious and political circumstances within the Empire itself (the end of the religious wars and the proclamation of the principles of the Peace of Augsburg).<\/p>\n\n
***<\/p>\n\n
As the foundation for the functioning of the Church in Pomerania, Luther\u2019s catechism and the Augsburg Confession (the Augsburg Confession of Faith) prepared by Luther\u2019s student, Philip Melanchthon, were adopted. The bishop of Kamie\u0144 was to remain in his position for life; afterward, following a ten-year period of turbulence, titular bishops (who did not perform priestly duties) were successive dukes from the Griffin dynasty.<\/p>
The remaining Catholic clergy, both secular and monastic, who did not agree to the new religious principles, were treated leniently and were allowed to practice their faith, provided that their teaching did not contradict the Bible. The final form of the Church was to be shaped on the basis of the results of church visitations, which began already in January 1535 and initially covered the larger cities, and over time also the towns and villages of Pomerania.<\/p>
Similar measures within the bishop\u2019s domain were carried out only in the 1550s, after the death of Bishop Manteuffel. The visitation teams, operating under the patronage of the dukes, consisted of ducal councillors and officials; over time, they came to be directed by superintendents. This ensured the subordination of the Church to the interests of the dynasty, that is, in effect, to the state.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
In organizing the Pomeranian Church, attention was focused on three fundamental issues: providing it with the means for financial support, creating a body of Protestant clergy, and introducing the reforms into daily life\u2014something that locally encountered considerable resistance (in certain regions of the Duchy, Lutheranism was not fully established until the 1560s).<\/p>\n\n
The financial foundation of the Protestant Church in Pomerania was based, among other things, on the revenues from secularized church estates. Particular difficulties arose in the case of monasteries, as both abbots and monks were reluctant to see their possessions diminished. Controversy also emerged over the division of these properties, since, in addition to the dukes, claims to them were also made by the nobility and the towns. \n \nUltimately, most of the estates were incorporated into the ducal domains, and this applied to both male and female monasteries. In six convents, girls\u2019 educational institutions were established for the daughters of the nobility (and, as places allowed, also for townsmen\u2019s daughters). The properties of mendicant orders (e.g., the Franciscans) were transferred to the towns, which was intended to satisfy their claims to the inheritance of church property. \n \nMonks and nuns who did not adopt the new faith were guaranteed maintenance in the monasteries and could remain there for life. This situation lasted until the 1570s, when the last of them passed away.<\/p>\n\n
After the death of Bishop Erasmus Manteuffel in 1545, as mentioned above, the bishopric passed into the hands of the ruling dynasty; from then on, the episcopal seat was each time occupied by a son of the reigning duke. This principle was introduced in 1556, after a decade of turbulence connected with the appointment of successive candidates who were more or less favorable to the Reformation.<\/p>\n\n
From the very beginning, the principal \u201creligious\u201d administration of the land was in the hands of superintendents subordinate to the dukes. This created a certain degree of dependence, thanks to which the Lutheran Church not only provided religious ministry but also played a state-building role, supporting the rulers in their efforts for the good of the country.<\/p>
The appropriate level of religious life in the Duchy was overseen by synods: the general synod, composed of pastors from larger towns, and the provincial synods, in which pastors from smaller towns and villages participated. Judicial and administrative church authority was exercised by consistories, composed of both clerics and laymen, which were established in Greifswald, Szczecin, and Ko\u0142obrzeg as early as 1545, that is, at the very beginning of the Reformation process.<\/p><\/p>\n\n
From the perspective of the dynasty\u2019s interests, the most important consequence of the secularization and nationalization of Catholic Church property was the tremendous growth of the state\u2019s wealth. This allowed for investments in education, culture, and the arts on a scale previously unseen in Pomerania. Investments were made in the expansion of ducal residences (including the castle in Szczecin), in rural schooling, and in the collection of cultural goods and works of art, as well as in the development of native culture. \n \nIn the 16th and early 17th centuries, the first Pomeranian chronicles were written, some of which remained in manuscript (Bugenhagen, Kantzow), while others were published in print (Friedeborn, Cramer). Pomerania was visited by travelers from across Europe, and some of them\u2014such as the ducal art dealer from Augsburg, Philipp Hainhofer\u2014left behind excellent and detailed descriptions of the conditions prevailing in the state, as well as of the functioning of the ducal court and its customs.<\/p>\n\n
The most important \u201cinvestment\u201d in education during the Reformation period was the establishment of the Ducal Pedagogy School (Pedagogium Ducale) in Szczecin in 1544. It functioned as a \u201csemi-higher\u201d school, although at the outset of the decision to establish it, there had been discussion about the possible transfer of the University of Greifswald (founded in 1456) to the banks of the Oder. The Pedagogium was intended as a transitional stage toward the creation of a full university, a goal that had already been included in the program of the first, Bugenhagen Church Ordinance of 1535. \n \nThe fact that plans for the development of education were included in a document dealing with matters of faith shows how much importance Lutheranism attached to the education of young people and to instilling in them proper moral and religious values, inseparable from the knowledge they were acquiring. \n \nThe municipal council opposed locating a university in the city, fearing, among other things, rising prices and disturbances caused by unruly students.<\/p>\n\n
Finally, in the early 1540s, work began on organizing the new institution. Its funding was to be based on the resources of the newly established Marian Foundation, which controlled the assets of two parishes: St. Otto\u2019s Castle Church and the city\u2019s most important temple\u2014the Church of St. Mary. In 1542, the first rector was appointed: Antonius Walter, a staunch Lutheran. The following year the foundation charter was issued, and in 1544 the school admitted its first students. \n \nA key role of the education offered (at a fairly high level) was the shaping of proper religious attitudes. Its period of flourishing came to an end with the arrival of the Thirty Years\u2019 War in Pomerania and the extinction of the Griffin dynasty (1637). After the war, the lands of the former Duchy were divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, with Szczecin falling to the former. \n \nInspections of Pomeranian schools conducted by the Swedes in the early 1660s revealed a deep crisis in the Pedagogium, which resulted in its closure (1667), followed by its reopening under a new name\u2014the Gymnasium Carolinum.<\/p>\n\n
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ChatGPT powiedzia\u0142: \n \nThe introduction of the Reformation in Pomerania was one of the most significant events in its modern history. It brought the Duchy into the orbit of Protestant states, forging stronger ties with Saxony and, in the longer term (early 1570s), easing the tense relations with Brandenburg. Its impact on the development of Pomeranian culture, science, and education\u2014entering a \u201cgolden age\u201d in the 16th century\u2014cannot be overstated. \n \nIt may be stated with little doubt that thanks to the Reformation, a series of phenomena emerged that had a very positive influence on the character of the Duchy until the very end of its existence.<\/p>\n\n
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