The Manorial–Serf Economy in the Ducal Domains

When Bogislaw X succeeded in uniting Pomerania in 1478, the ducal estates were in a deplorable condition. Severely diminished, they were almost entirely in the hands of land vogts (stewards), who remitted only a small portion of the income derived from peasant labor to the ducal treasury. In this situation, Bogislaw X decided to regain full control over his estates. First, he sought to recover from the nobility those lands that had been unlawfully seized by them. To this end, he initiated a review of feudal titles held by individual noble families. However, this effort did not yield satisfactory results. Secondly, he reorganized ducal property, creating uniformly managed, consolidated complexes of estates known as domains (Ämter). Each domain was placed under the supervision of a domain administrator (Amtmann), appointed and dismissed directly by the duke. The domains also became part of the territorial administration of the state, as their administrators not only managed the ducal estates but also exercised oversight over the surrounding nobility on behalf of the ruler. There is no doubt that Bogislaw X succeeded in consolidating the ducal lands and increasing their profitability, even if he did not significantly expand their total area.

It was only after Pomerania’s transition to Protestantism in 1534 (the Trzebiatów assembly) that the reigning dukes, Barnim IX and Philip I, took over a significant portion of the land previously belonging to the Church, especially monastic estates. This led to a considerable expansion of the ducal domains. Some existing domains were enlarged with former church lands, while others were established entirely on former ecclesiastical property. For example, the Darłowo domain was expanded with the lands of the secularized Cistercian monastery in Bukowo, and the Wolin domain incorporated the property of the Cistercian nunnery in Wolin. Much of the Szczecin domain had also once been church-owned, including lands belonging to the Cistercian and Carthusian monasteries in Szczecin, as well as to the churches of St. Mary, St. James, and St. Otto. Entirely new domains were established on former monastic lands: the Kołbacz domain on the estates of the Cistercian monastery in Kołbacz, the Trzebiatów domain on the lands of the Premonstratensian (Norbertine) monastery in Białoboki and its affiliated female convent in Trzebiatów, the Marianowo domain on the site of the former Cistercian monastery in Marianowo, the Pyrzyce domain on the estates of the Augustinian convent in Pyrzyce, and the Koszalin domain on the lands of the local Cistercian nuns. The process of church property confiscation in Pomerania concluded in 1556, when the Griffins took possession of the estates of the bishops of Kamień, forming from them a third duchy—the Prince-Bishopric. Thus, in the second half of the 16th century, three duchies existed in Pomerania: the Duchy of Wolgast, the Duchy of Szczecin, and the Prince-Bishopric, all of which derived their rulers’ income primarily from the revenues of the ducal domains.

By the second half of the 16th century, a total of 33 ducal domains had been established in Pomerania, each administered by appointed stewards (Amtmänner). In the Duchy of Wolgast, there were 14 domains, located in: Barth, Eldena, Grimmen/Tribsees, Jasienica, Loitz, Neuenkamp, Pudagla/Usedom, Stolpe, Torgelow, Treptow/Klempenow, Uckermünde, Verchen, Wolgast, and the Rügen Landvogtei (Rügen bailiwick). Similarly, in the Duchy of Szczecin, 14 domains took shape in the second half of the century, with seats in: Białogard, Bytów, Darłowo, Kołbacz, Lębork, Marianowo, Podlesie, Pyrzyce, Słupsk, Szadzko, Szczecin, Szczecinek, Trzebiatów, and Wolin. In the smallest of the three, the Prince-Bishopric, there were five domains, located in: Bobolice, Karlino, Kazimierz, Kołobrzeg, and Koszalin.

As mentioned earlier, each domain was headed by a steward (Amtmann) appointed by the duke. His duties included overseeing the entire domain and supervising the local nobility, to whom he conveyed the ruler’s will. The steward also had the authority, on behalf of the prince, to adjudicate minor disputes among members of the noble estate. The actual manager of the domain, however, was the rentmaster (Rentmeister), who served as the steward’s deputy. He directly supervised the operation of the manorial farms (folwarks) and other ducal enterprises such as brickworks, lime kilns, mills, and forges. He was also responsible for collecting dues from the rural population, since not every village within the domain had a folwark. The rentmaster reported the domain’s revenues directly to the regional rentmaster (Landrentmeister), with whom he settled accounts once a year by transferring funds from the sale of agricultural produce, livestock, and other goods produced within the domain—such as sheep’s wool. In the case of domains located near ducal residences—such as Szczecin, Pyrzyce, and Kołbacz for Szczecin, Wolgast for Wolgast, or Koszalin for Koszalin—the food produced there was sent directly to the ducal courts. It formed the basis of sustenance for the ducal families and their household staff.

ChatGPT powiedział: The ducal domains were not uniform—they varied in size, number of manorial farms (folwarks), production specialization, and, of course, profitability. In the Duchy of Szczecin, the largest domains included Darłowo (1,865 łans) and Kołbacz (1,571 łans), while the smallest was Podlesie (87 łans). In the Prince-Bishopric, the smallest was the Karlino domain, comprising only 84 łans, and the largest was Koszalin, with 196 łans. From the standpoint of production specialization, certain domains were predominantly forest-based, such as Podlesie in the Duchy of Szczecin and Uckermünde in the Duchy of Wolgast. Others focused primarily on grain production, including the Pyrzyce and Kołbacz domains in the Duchy of Szczecin, and the Eldena domain along with the Rügen Landvogtei in the Duchy of Wolgast. Livestock breeding, especially sheep farming, was a defining and highly profitable feature of the ducal economy, owing to the high value of wool. Meanwhile, in the Wolin domain, fishing played a major role in the local economy. Fish caught mainly in the Szczecin Lagoon were sold not only on the open market but also supplied directly to the ducal court in Szczecin, where they formed a regular part of the ruler’s table.

Large commercial agricultural estates—known as manorial farms (folwarks)—began to appear on ducal lands as early as the beginning of the 16th century. The first recorded one, mentioned in 1504, was the castle farm in Lębork, belonging to the Lębork domain. However, folwarks became more numerous only by the mid-16th century. They usually covered a dozen or so łans (field units), and only rarely several dozen. Thus, although the beginnings of the manorial economy in the ducal domains date back to the first half of the 16th century, it gained real significance only in the second half of that century. The development of folwarks took place primarily at the expense of peasant lands (peasant evictions), and to a lesser extent through the cultivation of abandoned fields, wastelands, or deforestation to expand existing farms. Each folwark was managed by a bailiff (wójt), also referred to as a steward (dwornik), who was responsible for all agricultural operations and yields. Each estate also had a housekeeper (dwórka) overseeing the female staff, composed of several maidservants. The core of the permanent workforce, directed by the bailiff, consisted of farmhands, drivers, plowmen, herdsmen, stable boys, and shepherds. Alongside serf peasants, they performed agricultural labor, tended the livestock, and carried out maintenance work around the farm buildings. The permanent staff of a folwark was generally small—typically only a few people—and in some estates no full-time farmhands, plowmen, or herdsmen were recorded at all. In larger domains, however, there were also rural craftsmen, such as blacksmiths, millers, butchers, wheelwrights, tailors, shoemakers, and fishermen.

The primary labor force in the manorial farms (folwarks) of the ducal domains consisted of serf peasants. Their unpaid labor significantly increased the competitiveness of the estates, both on the domestic and foreign markets. Peasants holding full or half hides of land (łany) were required to perform draft labor—that is, using their own plow teams—on ducal land, while smallholders and landless peasants performed manual labor on foot. By the end of the 16th century, the amount of compulsory labor in the ducal domains averaged three to five days per week. Peasant obligations also included arduous transport duties, such as carrying food products and grain from the folwark to local markets, and frequent timber transport for sale or for fuel. Unpaid peasant labor was also exploited in ducal brickworks, lime kilns, and sawmills located within the domains, as well as for construction work on ducal estates.

The ducal folwarks primarily cultivated cereal crops, mainly rye, barley, and oats, as well as wheat, though the latter was grown only where soil conditions were favorable. Sources also mention the cultivation of peas, buckwheat, spelt, flax, and hemp. Crop production was complemented by animal husbandry. Both ducal farms and peasant holdings maintained a significant number of horses, which served not only as the main source of draft power in rural areas but were also bred for the needs of the ducal court and Pomeranian nobility. Pomeranian horses, though not as stocky or heavy as Frisian or Dutch breeds, were tall, strong, and remarkably resilient. In addition to horses, cattle were kept mainly on peasant farms, typically a few head per full-sized holding—mostly dairy cows. Pigs were raised for meat, both on large estates, which might keep a dozen or more, and in smaller smallholder farms, which usually kept only a few. Sheep farming was also widespread, both on peasant farms and in ducal folwarks, where dedicated sheepfolds were maintained, managed by professional shepherds. Among poultry, chickens and geese were the most common on Pomeranian farms of the period.

The ducal domains in Pomerania encompassed about 30% of all the land within the territories ruled by the Griffin dynasty. For example, in the Duchies of Szczecin and Kamień, there were a total of 320 villages covering 9,676 łans of land. The share of ducal property (including folwarks and villages) amounted to approximately 28.8% of the total area. In the Duchy of Wolgast, ducal lands accounted for about 34% of the duchy’s territory. This means that, on the scale of all Pomerania, the Griffins owned nearly one-third of the land. When comparing within the domains the proportion of manorial (folwark) land to peasant land, the average ratio was 25% to 75%, meaning that roughly one-quarter of each domain’s area consisted of ducal estates. Naturally, these proportions varied between domains, depending on local conditions. The profitability of the ducal domains increased significantly over time. In the Duchy of Wolgast, revenues rose from 17,200 florins in the 1560s to 38,300 florins at the beginning of the 17th century. In the Duchy of Szczecin, income grew even more sharply—from 20,600 florins to nearly 70,000 florins over the same period.

ChatGPT powiedział: Ultimately, in Pomerania during the second half of the 16th century and the early 17th century, there were 33 ducal domains in which the manorial (folwark) economy flourished. This development was largely driven by the favorable market conditions for grain and timber in Western Europe and for foodstuffs in Scandinavia. From the mid-16th century, the expansion of folwarks occurred mainly through the seizure of peasant land, as well as through the cultivation of abandoned fields and wastelands and deforestation. By the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, the territorial expansion of the folwarks meant that they occupied about 25% of the arable land within the domains. The primary branch of production, both in the folwarks and in peasant farms, was crop cultivation. Four main grains were grown: rye (averaging 37% of the sown area), oats (33%), and barley (24%). Wheat was sown only on the best soils, which accounted for about 5% of the total sown area. Of these cereals, only rye and wheat were exported beyond Pomerania. Average yields in the ducal domains amounted to about four grains harvested per one sown. The second major branch of production in the domains—both in the folwarks and in peasant holdings—was animal husbandry, which included the breeding of horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, and poultry (mainly chickens and geese).

More:

B. Wachowiak, Pomorze Zachodnie w schyłkowej epoce feudalizmu (1464-1815), w: Historia Pomorza, t II do roku 1815, cz. I (1464/66 – 1648/57), red. G. Labuda, Poznań 1976.

B. Wachowiak, Gospodarka folwarczna w domenach Księstwa Pomorskiego w XVI i na początku XVII wieku, Warszawa 2005.

Radosław Gaziński